By Neha Singh, Sakshi Shukla and Tanya Nagle
Mining is one of the primary economic activities since it involves the extraction of minerals from nature. The discovery of minerals sparked the development of mining. Coal mining from South Africa is the earliest known mining for a specific mineral, dating back 40,000 to 20,000 years. However, mining did not become an important industry until 10,000 to 7,000 years ago, when more evolved civilizations emerged. Mining's actual development began with the industrial revolution, and its importance is growing all the time.
Source: Forbes
Factors affecting mining activity
The profitability of mining operations depends on two main factors:
Physical factors - size, grade, and mode of occurrence of the deposits.
Economic factors - demand for the mineral, technology available and used, capital to develop infrastructure, and labour and transport costs.
Methods of mining
There are two forms of mining, depending on the mode of occurrence and the nature of the ore:
Surface mining, often known as open-cast mining. It is the simplest and most cost-effective
method of extracting minerals that are found near the surface. In this technology, overhead
costs such as safety procedures and equipment are quite minimal. Furthermore, the output
is both enormous and quick.
Underground mining, is another name for the Shaft method. This kind of mining is employed when the ore is found deep beneath the surface. Vertical shafts must be excavated in this procedure, from which underground tunnels radiate to reach the minerals. These tubes are used to extract minerals and transfer them to the surface. For safety and effective transportation of people and cargo, it necessitates specially constructed elevators, drills, haulage vehicles, and ventilation systems.
Underground mining is risky: Accidents involving poisonous gases, fires, floods, and cave-ins result in fatalities.
Due to high labour costs, industrialised economies are retreating from mining, processing, and refining stages of industry. While developing countries with huge labour forces and a desire to improve their living standards are becoming more important. It's because numerous African countries, as well as a few in South America and Asia, generate more than half of their income from minerals alone.
Types of mining
Strip mining: Strip mining is the process of removing the top layer of the surface layer from the minerals being dug, which is usually coal. The soil, rocks, and vegetation on the mineral seam are removed by massive equipment and excavators. This form of mining is especially good for minerals that are near to the surface.
Open pit mining: Open-pit mining works like strip mining. However, the minerals get removed from an open pit that’s left unfilled. Open-pit mines are often referred to as quarries when the mines produce building materials like marble, granite, and limestone.
Mountaintop removal: This is the most controversial type of mining as it involves removing mass amounts of minerals from mountain peaks. It involves use of explosives to blast the overburden above the mineral seam to be mined then shift the broken mountaintops and valleys.
Highwall mining: During high wall mining, heavy machinery collects ore from the high wall (unmined walls with exposed minerals and overburden). High walls are available at the edges of pit mines and quarries. The walls allow miners to retrieve ore without removing the overburden.
Source: epa.gov
Mining in India
India's mining sector is one of the country's most important industries. A vast number of
small active mines characterise the mining industry. India has extensive mineral resources, both metallic and non-metallic. India has 1,531 active mines and produces 95 minerals, including four fuels, ten metals, 23 non-metallic minerals, three atomic minerals, and 55 minor minerals (including building and other materials). In 2018-19, there were 1405 mines in India that reported mineral production (excluding atomic, fuel, and minor minerals). Based on the country's geological mapping, an area of 571,000 sq km has been designated as an Obvious Geological Potential (OGP) area, out of a total of 3.1 million sq km, where the geological potential for the occurrence of mineral resources is higher.
Source: India Map
India is home to the world's richest coal reserves. The total estimated coal reserves in 2020 were 344.02 billion tonnes, up 17.53 billion tonnes from the previous year. The total amount of finished steel shipped in 2020-21 will be 10.78 million tonnes. Since April-June 2021, India has been a net exporter of finished steel, with 3.56 million tonnes. As per the data of the Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), Ministry of Mines, the index of mineral production of the mining and quarrying sector for November 2021 at 111.9, was 5.0% higher as compared to the level in November 2020.
Mining: Environmental impacts
Mining has the potential to damage the air and water supply, harm wildlife and habitat, and
permanently alter natural landscapes. Mines, both active and abandoned, have caused major environmental harm throughout the West.
More than 40 percent of stream reaches in western watersheds are contaminated by acid mine drainage and heavy metals.
Mining has contaminated drinking water wells used by residents of Questa, New Mexico, and San Luis, Colorado, among other rural western towns.
Residents of Silver Valley, Idaho, and other rural communities have been forced to leave their homes because of mining waste contamination.
Mining has caused massive fish kills in the Red River in New Mexico, the Sacramento River in California, and the Alamosa River in Colorado, among others.
Hundreds of migratory birds have been poisoned after landing at mine pit lakes in California and Nevada.
Seventy-eight mines and mining facilities are so toxic that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has designated them as federal Superfund sites.
Mining causes similar harmful effects around the world.
Source: andersoneng.com
Human and social impacts
Migration to find work in mines often results in poor infrastructure and crowded living conditions which, allied with lack of social cohesion and support increases the risk of pathogen exposure (e.g. HIV, tuberculosis) and stress. South African miners have the highest incidence of tuberculosis (2500–3000 cases per 100,000 people) of any working population in the world (World Bank 2014). Across southern Africa, the triple disease burden of silicosis, HIV infection and tuberculosis among the very large population of miners and ex-miners constitutes a public health disaster: the overall mortality rate in ex-miners is 20% higher than that of the general population ; ex-miners aged 20–24.9 years had a 79% higher mortality rate than the general population of the same age.
Source: ResearchGate
Understanding the impacts of deep-sea mining
The deep-sea environment, particularly microorganisms, is little understood; yet, it is well understood that they play an essential role in its ecology. According to recent research, benthic bacteria trap 200 million tonnes of carbon dioxide into the biomass each year. Furthermore, the microbial populations in these deep-sea environments are extremely diverse. Even in the CCFZ, which has been studied for over 35 years, new species have been discovered in recent years. Because deep-sea microorganisms are difficult to culture due to their highly adaptable traits (such as the capacity to endure high pressure and temperatures), habitat degradation may result in the loss of these and other ecosystem services.
The disturbance also has a long-term impact on the deep-sea ecology. Since 1989, a pioneering impact assessment known as DISCOL has been underway to investigate the potential impact of future commercial manganese nodule mining on the seabed environment. Artificial disturbances were created by dragging tracks on the seafloor with a plough harrow equipment. The Mining Impact Project, a long-term impact study, found that these footprints are still evident after 26 years, and that both microbial communities and benthic species have not recovered.
Source: Financial Times
Government acts and policies for mining practices
The Union List and the State List both deal with the powers and responsibilities of mining practises and minerals in India. The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act 1957 (MMDR Act) is the primary legislation governing the mineral sector, enacted by the federal government. The MMDR Act gives the federal government the authority to issue directives to state governments in order to ensure sustainable mineral development and exploitation while minimising harmful air, ground, water, and noise impacts.
Before operating a mine in India, the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
(MOEFCC) requires an Environmental Clearance. ECs can be issued to mining leases at lower levels by the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority and the District Environment Impact Assessment Authority, in addition to the MoEFCC. The Mineral Conservation and Development Rules 2017 (MCD Rules) set forth the requirements for mining to be done in a scientifically sound manner while also protecting the environment.
The Indian Bureau of Mines is responsible for the scientific development of the country's mineral resources, mineral conservation, and environmental protection in mines for minerals (other than coal, petroleum, and natural gas, atomic minerals, and minor minerals) (IBM). It serves a critical function in ensuring environmental protection while mining activities continue. The IBM conducts mine inspections and studies to guarantee that mining operators are responsible for soil, rock, reclamation, and rehabilitation of land near mines, as well as groundwater, air, and noise pollution. It guarantees that environmental impact assessment studies are completed in accordance with the requirements. The Mines Act and Mines Rules establish rules that safeguard the welfare and safety of miners. The 2019 National Mineral Policy intends to put in place an effective institutional structure that promotes zero-waste mining as the ultimate goal, as well as a commitment to avoid sub-optimal and unscientific mining. The successful execution of this strategy will benefit the country's mining industry while also providing an excellent framework for long-term development.
Effective and sustainable ways of mining to reduce environmental impact
Mining is a vital industry for a country's industrial sectors, metallurgical growth, and infrastructure development. Mining, on the other hand, has a slew of negative environmental consequences. As a result, the government and mining companies must move to sustainable mining, which is the extraction of minerals from the soil without hurting the environment. It also includes maximising processing and attempting to get the greatest value from the minerals.
Reduce the amount of inputs and minerals extracted to achieve sustainable mining. Energy
efficiency is critical, and it can be achieved by incorporating newer technologies into mining
machines.
Conveyors and movable equipment, such as mobile crushers, can be employed on the job
site to save energy. Other technologies, such as sensor-based ore sorting, will aid in the reduction of water consumption. Environmental standards must be followed by mining enterprises. To be able to eliminate hazardous material from mining outputs, technologies providing real-time monitoring of harmful materials in tailings, wastewater, and soil should be
implemented.
Land reclamation and restoration, as well as the closing of abandoned mines, must be completed more swiftly in order to restore the area's environment. Other techniques of sustainable mining operations include metal recycling, vegetation rehabilitation around mining regions, application of current scientific norms and modern afforestation practises, and the use of renewable energy sources at mining sites. Apart from that, the IBM is in charge of conducting environmental effect assessment studies and providing proper environmental sensitization training to mine operators and personnel. This will help the mining industry grow and become more efficient while also protecting the environment and public health.
Source: London Mining Network
References:
Goh Cheng Leong's Certificate physical and human geography
Fundamentals of Human Geography
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10653-019-00367-7
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining
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